Monday, May 01, 2006

Speaking in small groups

1.

Small groups are usually less than ten members

Small group techniques help people participate freely and actively. They include special activities or formats that help interest and engage people. They foster active participation and steer participants toward constructive activities and dialogue. They help avoid complaint-oriented or conflict-driven sessions.

Kinds of Groups: Family Groups, Support Groups, Social Groups, Task/Work Groups/Teams, Computer Mediated Groups, Learning Groups, Committees – Standing and Ad Hoc, Quality Control Circles, Activity Groups, Personal Growth Groups

Small group techniques have certain basic characteristics:

· they emphasize active participation and interaction;

· they are usually run by a group leader or facilitator;

· they have a task, theme, or goal;

· they help reach consensus or develop priorities;

· they gather a range of ideas, opinions, and concerns;

· they are applied to either planning or project development;

· in a breakout group, a small group task reflects the larger group agenda; and

· breakout groups report back to the larger group.

Group techniques

Breakout groups, workshops, seminars, community juries, roundtables, study circles, conflict utilization opinionaires, decision science, delphi, dialogue facilitation, nominal group process, open space technology, Samoan circle, SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats), and value analysis and brainstorming.

2.

Decision-Making

Standard Agenda	Developed by John Dewey, reflective thinking^8 involves a careful, systematic approach to a problem. Groups who use reflective thinking to make their decisions make use of a six-step guide called the standard agenda. Problem identification. What is the problem? What is wrong with the current situation? Problem analysis. View the current situation as a balance between restraining forces and helping forces. What are the forces in play in your group's situation? Criteria selection. What are the goals of the final decision? Solution generation. Generate as many solutions as possible. Avoid groupthink by listing many solutions. Solution evaluation and selection. Measure each solution against the criteria from step three. Solution implementation. Enact the chosen solution.
Brainstorming	Another option for decision-making is brainstorming. When brainstorming, group members are encouraged to generate as many ideas about a particular topic as they can. For instance, group members may use brainstorming to generate as many solutions as they can in step four of the standard agenda. Group members should be encouraged to say anything that comes to mind when brainstorming. Every idea is written down and judgments about ideas are saved until later, when the group returns to all of the ideas and selects those that are most useful.
Nominal Group Technique	Nominal group technique is a group decision-making tool used when the group must rank order a set of options. In order to use the nominal group technique, group members work individually to list all alternatives to a problem or issue. Sometimes, nominal group technique is used after a brainstorming session is held. Then, the group facilitator asks each group member to individually rank all of the options from lowest to highest priority. Finally, the facilitator computes an average score for each idea. the lowest score is the highest priority for the group. For example, if six group members were discussing problems on campus and they assigned parking the scores of 1,1,2,2,1,1, it would have an average score of 1.3. Another problem, lack of activities, may have received ranks of 2,2,1,1,2,3. Its score would be 1.8. Parking would be the most important priority. Nominal group techinique is a good way to have all of the group members voice their opinions and discussion is not dominated by a few vocal group members.
The Final Decision	There are many ways that a group can make a final decision, decide on a solution, or come to agreement. Some of the most popular ways of making the decision include: · Consensus: The group members all agree on the final decision through discussion and debate. · Compromise: Through discussion and readjustment of the final plan, group members come to agreement by giving up some of their demands. · Majority Vote: The decision is based on the opinion of the majority of its members. · Decision by Leader: The group gives the final decision to its leader. · Arbitration: An external body or person makes a decision for the group.

3.

Small Group Development

Tubbs's Theory Orientation Conflict Consensus Closure

Fisher's Model Orientation Conflict Emergence Reinforcement

Tuckman's Model Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

Tubbs's Small Group Development Theory⁴

Orientation	In this stage, group members get to know each other, they start to talk about the problem, and they examine the limitations and opportunities of the project.
Conflict	Conflict is a necessary part of a group's development. Conflict allows the group to evaluate ideas and it helps the group avoid conformity and groupthink
Consensus	Conflict ends in the consensus stage, when group members compromise, select ideas, and agree on alternatives.
Closure	In this stage, the final result is announced and group members reaffirm their support of the decision.

Fisher's Small Group Development Theory⁵

Orientation	During the orientation phase, Fisher says group members get to know each other and they experience primary tension, the awkward feeling people have before communication rules and expectations are established. Groups should take time to learn about each other and feel comfortable communicating around new people.
Conflict	The conflict phase is marked by secondary tension, or tension surrounding the task at hand. Group members will disagree with each other and debate ideas. Remember that conflict is good, because it helps the group achieve positive results.
Emergence	In the emergence phase, says Fisher, the outcome of the group's task and its social structure become apparent.
Reinforcement	In this stage, group members bolster their final decision by using supportive verbal and nonverbal communication.

Tuckman's Small Group Development Theory⁶

Forming	In the forming stage, group members learn about each other and the task at hand.
Storming	As group members become more comfortable with each other, they will engage each other in arguments and vie for status in the group. These activities mark the storming phase.
Norming	During the norming stage, group members establish implicit or explicit rules about how they will achieve their goal. They address the types of communication that will or will not help with the task.
Performing	In the performing stage, groups reach a conclusion and implement the conclusion.
Adjourning	As the group project ends, the group disbands in the adjournment phase.

Poole's Small Group Development Theory⁷

Task track	Marshall Scott Poole and his colleagues have found that group development is often more complicated than the three previous models indicate. He has argued that groups jump back and forth between three tracks: task, topic, and relation. The three tracks can be compared to the intertwined strands of a rope. The task track concerns the process by which the group accomplishes its goals.
Topic track	The topic track concerns the specific item the group is discussing at the time.
Relation track	The relation track deals with the interpersonal relationships between the group members. At times, the group may stop its work on the task and work instead on its relationships. When the group reaches consensus on all three tracks at once, it can proceed in a more unified manner as the three previous models illustrate.
Breakpoints	Breakpoints occur when a group switches from one track to another. Shifts in the conversation, adjournment, or postponement are examples of breakpoints.